Bibliography: Bilingual Education (page 485 of 829)

This annotated bibliography is reformatted and customized by the Center for Positive Practices.  Some of the authors featured on this page include Meaola Amituanai-Toloa, Rachel Oppenheim, Robert Rueda, Belinda J. Hardin, Elisabeth Johnson, Beverly J. Irby, Mariana Mereoiu, Hsuan-Fang Hung, Ingse Skattum, and Mei Kuin Lai.

Hardin, Belinda J.; Mereoiu, Mariana; Hung, Hsuan-Fang; Roach-Scott, Marisa (2009). Investigating Parent and Professional Perspectives Concerning Special Education Services for Preschool Latino Children, Early Childhood Education Journal. Population changes in the US have created new challenges for service providers responsible for screening, determining eligibility, and providing appropriate educational services to young English Language Learners (ELLs). Six focus groups (two each) with administrators, teachers, and parents were conducted in two different locations to investigate the referral, diagnostic evaluation, and placement of prekindergarten Latino children who are ELLs and their families. The purpose of this study was to: (a) identify effective practices that differentiate between cultural/linguistic differences and learning differences; (b) identify the gaps in the current special education services; and (c) make recommendations to reduce the disproportionate representation of young ELL children based on these data. The results revealed a number of factors contributing to the disproportionality of young ELL children in special services such as: inconsistent screening and evaluation methods; insufficient numbers of bilingual professionals and trained interpreters; communication barriers and contradictory procedures that undermine meaningful partnerships with parents of ELLs; the need for professional development on the purposes and administration procedures of screening and evaluation tools; and a need for policy and regulation changes pertaining to ELL children such as the timing of screenings and evaluations.   [More]  Descriptors: Focus Groups, Disproportionate Representation, English (Second Language), Special Education

Martin-Beltran, Melinda (2009). Cultivating Space for the Language Boomerang: The Interplay of Two Languages as Academic Resources, English Teaching: Practice and Critique. Grounded in sociocultural theory, this study uses an ecological approach to examine how student interactions within a dual-language school context may offer affordances for increased linguistic and conceptual understanding. Using qualitative analysis of student discourse, this paper focuses on data from recorded interactions between pairs of fifth-grade students engaged in writing activities (in English and Spanish). Findings demonstrated that the following key contextual factors cultivated a space for languaging (Swain, 2006), and thus enhanced conceptual understanding: 1) the interplay of two languages as academic tools; 2) the recognition of learners' expertise and distinct linguistic funds of knowledge; 3) opportunities for co-construction; and 4) student and teacher strategies that call attention to language. This study has implications for the education of language-minority students in English-medium classrooms and suggests that teachers should cultivate learning spaces that draw upon their students' other languages in order to promote a deeper analysis of English. This study urges future research to more closely consider reciprocal affordances for language learning among bilingual learners and seeks to bridge insight across the fields of second language acquisition and bilingualism.   [More]  Descriptors: Linguistics, Holistic Approach, Grade 5, Minority Groups

Alanis, Iliana (2007). Developing Literacy through Culturally Relevant Texts, Social Studies and the Young Learner. Recently the author was working with a group of elementary bilingual teachers along a remote section of the Texas/Mexico border. She had been asked to facilitate the development of their social studies curriculum for their new dual-language program. She realized that although these teachers had experience working with culturally and linguistically diverse children, they had little experience using books that related to their children's cultural backgrounds. In order to successfully prepare young students for active citizenry in a democratic society, effective teachers recognize, honor, and incorporate children's voices in all areas of curricula. Given the growing percentage of Latino/a youth in American schools, the author offers three strategies for facilitating the development of Mexican American children's cultural and linguistic identities as they acquire language and literacy: (1) listening to oral storytelling; (2) creating individual historical narratives; and (3) using biographies to develop a broader historical understanding of the Mexican American experience in the United States. In addition, she offers considerations for choosing culturally relevant texts as well as a list of suggested literature for Mexican American children.   [More]  Descriptors: Teacher Effectiveness, Biographies, Historical Interpretation, Democracy

Hayes, Katherine; Rueda, Robert; Chilton, Susan (2009). Scaffolding Language, Literacy, and Academic Content in English and Spanish: The Linguistic Highway from Mesoamerica to Southern California, English Teaching: Practice and Critique. This article contains a description of the Dual Proficiency (DP) program in an urban elementary school located in the heart of a large south-western city, as well as the teachers who designed and now implement DP, and the immigrant community participating by choice in DP. We write from a context where, ironically, the number of English language learners (ELL) in the United States is at its highest and yet use of the children's native language for classroom instruction is severely restricted, for all intents and purposes, by law. On top of this, district, state and national accountability demands, and the resulting focus on standardised test scores as indices of achievement, have served to narrow the curriculum and to direct classroom time to intensively tested skills. For schools with large numbers of students whose scores do not meet state testing standards, the prescribed remedy is often mandated, skills-based commercial programs. In the DP program, on the other hand, thoughtful content-based instruction utilising academic language connections between the students' two dominant languages (Spanish and English) with explicit recognition of the contributions of additional heritage indigenous languages from Mexico and Central America provides the scaffold to academic understanding for participating students. DP students consistently score significantly above their non-DP peers on state-mandated achievement tests.   [More]  Descriptors: Heritage Education, Academic Discourse, Language Dominance, Second Language Learning

Goldberg, Jennifer; Enyedy, Noel; Welsh, Kate Muir; Galiani, Kathryn (2009). Legitimacy and Language in a Science Classroom, English Teaching: Practice and Critique. In this study, we explore language–specifically the use of Spanish, in a sixth-grade science classroom, where the district recognises English as the official language of instruction. The question guiding our analysis is: How is Spanish positioned in Ms. Cook's science class? Transcribed interaction from twelve weeks of videotaping is coded and analysed to highlight when and how Spanish is used during everyday classroom activities. Most of the formal, public talk during Ms. Cook's science class was in English. Ms. Cook consistently spoke English in discussions, modeling English "science talk". However, during small group work, a significant portion of science class, language flowed between English and Spanish. As students tried to interpret and make sense of science concepts, students chose the language that was most useful to them. In this article, we will share transcript excerpts that illustrate interaction where Spanish and English are both positioned as legitimate tools for students to use when exploring science concepts. The excerpts also show how Spanish was respected as Ms. Cook legitimised Spanish, without translating it or marking it as unacceptable. In this classroom, Spanish works as a significant resource, helping students achieve success in science class.   [More]  Descriptors: Class Activities, Learning Activities, Official Languages, Language of Instruction

Garcia, Eugene; Jensen, Bryant (2009). Early Educational Opportunities for Children of Hispanic Origins. Social Policy Report. Volume XXIII, Number II, Society for Research in Child Development. This paper argues that young Hispanic (or Latina/o) children (ages 3 to 8 years) should be of particular interest to policymakers, practitioners, and researchers in education. Young Hispanic children constitute an urgent demographic imperative. Young Hispanic children are not only the largest racial/ethnic group in the U.S., but also the youngest and fastest-growing. Among racial/ethnic groups, Hispanics have a unique linguistic profile. Approximately three in four young Hispanic children lives in homes in which at least some Spanish is spoken regularly. Empirical evidence suggests that certain interventions during the early years are a wise investment to improving learning opportunities and outcomes for Hispanic children. Hispanics lag behind their white and Asian-American peers at all proficiency levels of reading and mathematics at the beginning and throughout PK-12 schooling. In order for young Hispanics to succeed in academic contexts, they need strong English skills. Recent research suggests academic benefits of bilingual over English-only programs, enough to close one-fifth to one-third of the overall Hispanic-White reading performance gap. Moreover, recent research shows young Hispanics are particularly positioned to benefit from prekindergarten participation even though they are less likely to attend compared to other racial/ethnic groups. Our recommendations include that the federal government: (1) underwrite tests of programs designed to produce large increases in the number of culturally knowledgeable preschool and early elementary teachers proficient in English and Spanish fund and experiment with teacher preparation programs to recruit more Spanish-speaking undergraduates and teachers who are trained in second language acquisition to work as language specialists; (2) continue to explore and expand dual-language (DL) programs through Head Start, Early Head Start, and other grant programs; and (3) expand the scope of the national and international databases developed to assess student performance. (Contains 5 tables.) [Commentaries from Robert Crosnoe and James Griffin are also included.]   [More]  Descriptors: Disadvantaged Youth, Program Effectiveness, Federal Government, Educational Opportunities

What Works Clearinghouse (2007). Bilingual Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition. What Works Clearinghouse Intervention Report. The "Bilingual Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition" ("BCIRC") program, an adaptation of the "Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition" ("CIRC") program, was designed to help Spanish-speaking students succeed in reading Spanish and then making a successful transition to English reading. In the adaptation, students complete tasks that focus on reading, writing, and language activities in Spanish and English, while working in small cooperative learning groups. The intervention focuses on students in grades 2-5. One study reviewed by What Works Clearinghouse (WWC) investigated the effects of "BCIRC" on the reading achievement and English language development of English language learners. The study (Calderon, Hertz-Lazarowitz, & Slavin, 1998) was a quasi-experimental design that met WWC evidence standards with reservations. All students in the experimental schools (n = 3) and comparison schools (n = 4) were enrolled in bilingual programs and transitioning into English language instruction. Students in the comparison group participated in round-robin oral reading exercises and used workbooks for practice activities. A total of 222 Spanish-speaking English language learners in two cohorts participated in the project. However, only third graders were tested in English, so they are the only students included in this intervention report. At the time of posttesting, there were 85 third-grade students (n = 52 for "BCIRC" and n = 33 for control). The "Bilingual Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition" program was found to have potentially positive effects on reading achievement and English language development. (Contains 8 footnotes.) [This publication was produced by the What Works Clearinghouse. The following study is reviewed in this intervention report: Calderon, M., Hertz-Lazarowitz, R., and Slavin, R. (1998). Effects of Bilingual Cooperative Integrated Reading and Composition on students making the transition from Spanish to English reading. "Elementary School Journal," 99(2), 153-165.]   [More]  Descriptors: Second Language Learning, Grade 3, Writing (Composition), Intervention

Lara-Alecio, Rafael; Tong, Fuhui; Irby, Beverly J.; Mathes, Patricia (2009). Teachers' Pedagogical Differences during ESL Block among Bilingual and English-Immersion Kindergarten Classrooms in a Randomized Trial Study, Bilingual Research Journal. Using a low-inference observational instrument, the authors empirically described and compared pedagogical behaviors in bilingual and structured English-immersion programs serving Spanish-speaking English language learners in a large urban school district in Southeast Texas. The two programs included both intervention/control of each type during ESL block. The 9,508 observations were collected four times during the kindergarten year from 54 classrooms in 23 schools. Findings indicated that within the English-immersion program, teachers in experimental, as opposed to control, classrooms allocated more instructional time (p less than 0.01) in (a) cognitive areas and expressive-language-related tasks in English, (b) teacher-ask/student-answer types of activities, (c) academic visual scaffolding and leveled questions, and (d) encouraging student interactions. Similar differences were found in teachers between experimental and control bilingual classrooms.   [More]  Descriptors: Urban Schools, Immersion Programs, Bilingual Education, Second Language Learning

McAuley, Alexander (2009). Knowledge Building in an Aboriginal Context, Canadian Journal of Learning and Technology. The report on the Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples (1996), the Kelowna Accord announced in 2005 (five-billion dollars) followed by its demise in 2006, and the settlement in 2006 for Aboriginal survivors of residential schools (1.9 billion dollars), are but some of the recent high-profile indicators of the challenges to Canada in dealing with the 500-year history of European contact with North America's original inhabitants. While not without its challenges, the creation of Nunavut in 1999 stands apart from this history as a landmark for Inuit self-determination in Canada and a beacon of hope for other Aboriginal peoples. Building on the idea that educational change takes place within the intersecting socio-cultural contexts of the school and the larger world around it, and drawing on data from an eight-year series of design experiments in classrooms in the Baffin (now Qikiqtani) region of Nunavut, this paper explores the potential of knowledge building and knowledge-building technologies to support powerful bilingual (Inuktitut/English) and bicultural learning experiences for Aboriginal students.   [More]  Descriptors: Canada Natives, Educational Change, Foreign Countries, Eskimo Aleut Languages

Shaw, Cynthia (2009). Science Teachers in Deaf Education: A National Survey of K-8 Teachers, ProQuest LLC. A survey was conducted with 67 science teachers who taught deaf children at the elementary school level. Teacher background variables, information about teacher preparation and certification, preferred teaching methods, communication methodologies, curriculum, and the use of technology were gathered. A purposeful, convenience sampling technique was employed. Utilizing a non-experimental, basic research design and survey methodology, the researcher reviewed both quantitative and qualitative data. The majority of science teachers in this survey at the elementary school level are female and hearing. More than half have deaf education masters degrees. Few have science degrees. The majority of teachers had less than 10 years teaching experience with deaf students. Sixty percent were highly qualified in science; only forty percent were certified in science. They were equally employed at either a state residential school or a public day school. Two-way chi-square analyses were carried out. Hearing teachers preferred to observe other teachers teaching science compared to deaf teachers [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 5.39, p less than 0.05, deaf teachers were more familiar than hearing teachers with the ASL/English Bilingual Star School program ([chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 8.49, p less than 0.01). Deaf teachers participated more in the Star Schools training compared to hearing teachers ([chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 14.15, p less than 0.001). Deaf teachers compared to hearing teachers were more likely to use the bilingual strategy, translanguaging than hearing teachers ([chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 4.54, p less than 0.05). Hearing teachers used the computer more often in the classroom than deaf teachers ([chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 4.65, p less than 0.01). Hearing teachers had their students use the computer more regularly than deaf teachers ([chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 11.49, p less than 0.01). Teachers who worked in residential schools compared to working in public schools attended more state department of education science workshops [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 6.83, p less than 0.01, attended national or state science meetings [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 7.96, p less than 0.01, were familiar with the Star Schools program [chi][superscript 2] (1, N=67) = 13.23, p less than 0.01, and participated more in Star Schools programs [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 15.96, p less than 0.01. Compared to hearing teachers, the deaf teachers used web-based science materials ([chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 4.65, p less than 0.01), used codeswitching [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 10.78, p less than 0.001, used concurrent translation [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 11.30, p less than 0.001, used the Cummins BICS model [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 5.71, p less than 0.01, and used problem based learning [chi][superscript 2] (1, N = 67) = 4.14, p less than 0.01. Survey response revealed that science teachers in the elementary school lacked training in science, used technology infrequently and did not have access to in-service science workshops. Recommendations are made to provide higher quality science preparation at the pre-service and in-service levels. More research was also suggested to investigate the use of bilingual strategies in the teaching of science as many of the deaf teachers reported they used these strategies often.   [The dissertation citations contained here are published with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page: www.proquest.com/en-US/products/disserta…   [More]  Descriptors: Deafness, Masters Degrees, Teacher Background, Science Instruction

Amituanai-Toloa, Meaola; McNaughton, Stuart; Kuin Lai, Mei (2009). Examining Samoan Language Development in Samoan Bilingual Students' Understanding of Texts in English, Online Submission. This paper examines language development of Samoan students in bilingual contexts in Aotearoa, New Zealand. In the absence of valid and standardized assessments tools in Samoan, one was designed to test reading comprehension and oral language development for Samoan students using common narratives as a base. For reading comprehension, the tool used a listening comprehension format to avoid possible decoding limitations and provided a gradient of difficulty with a surprising drop in both oral and reading comprehension at year 7. This drop was attributed to a change in competencies of some students entering the bilingual classroom at year 7. For example, the mixed levels of both L1 (Samoan) oral and L1 (Samoan) reading comprehension within and across years of schooling likely reflects the varied provision in the Samoan bilingual classes and the variations across cohorts in different degrees of bilingualism. We argue that this might be due to the make up of the two schools of which one was an Intermediate school of years 7 and 8 students and, the other was a full primary school with students from years 4 to 8. The patterns suggest two general instructional needs in Samoan bilingual classrooms. One is the need to develop metacognitive components and the need for deliberate and explicit instruction to build awareness of strategies and effectiveness. The other is the ubiquitous need identified in reading comprehension instruction generally to develop vocabulary both through oral and written forms. There was a highly significant relationship between L1 oral at L1 reading comprehension levels reflecting a general relationship found in other studies of monolingual in L2 (English) contexts.   [More]  Descriptors: Reading Comprehension, Listening Comprehension, Bilingual Students, Bilingual Education

National High School Center (2009). Educating English Language Learners at the High School Level: A Coherent Approach to District- and School-Level Support. This practitioner issue brief outlines successful strategies and recommendations for state-level policymakers, administrators, schools, and districts that are based on a 5-year evaluation study on the learning environment for ELLs in the state of California. This brief offers four critical building blocks that should be in place to effectively educate ELLs: implementing a well-defined, rigorously structured plan of instruction; ensuring that teachers are skilled in addressing the needs of ELLs; systematically using data to assess teaching and learning; and regularly adjusting instructional planning on the basis of student performance. The brief also includes a list of ten tips from the successful principals interviewed for this study and a snapshot of Valley High School, an exemplary school that made strides in keeping English language learners in school and engaged in learning at high levels.   [More]  Descriptors: Instructional Development, Second Language Learning, English (Second Language), Academic Achievement

Johnson, Elisabeth; Oppenheim, Rachel; Suh, Younjung (2009). "Would that be Social Justice?" A Conceptual Constellation of Social Justice Curriculum in Action, New Educator. For new educators, the obstacles of high-stakes testing, curricular mandates, and their own inexperience and self-doubt can render teaching for justice and equity overwhelming, seemingly impossible ideals. However, as students are increasingly tied to prescriptive curricula and academic performance standards, the goals of social justice and democracy are all the more necessary. Through interviews and observations with new educators, the authors argue that, despite difficult, often restrictive teaching environments, these educators are indeed engaged in teaching socially just curricula in a variety of innovative ways. Beginning teachers' stories and their inspiring curricular enactments are at the heart of this article.   [More]  Descriptors: Beginning Teachers, Social Justice, Course Content, Curriculum Development

Borman, Kathryn M., Ed.; Cahill, Spencer E., Ed.; Cotner, Bridget A., Ed. (2007). The Praeger Handbook of American High Schools. Volume 3, Praeger. The Praeger Handbook of American High Schools contains entries that explore the topic of secondary schools in the United States. Entries are arranged alphabetically and cover topics as varied as assessment to the history of the American high school, from attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder to gay and straight student alliances, from the No Child Left Behind Act and state-mandated tests to student engagement, from proms to violence. All entries are cross-referenced for the reader's convenience, and there is a comprehensive index. Over 100 people from diverse fields including anthropology, education, measurement and research, psychology, and sociology, among other disciplines, contributed to the handbook. This work also contains documents that are critical to an understanding of the development of the American high school historically and as an institution bound by legal constraints. Legislative acts, such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and more recently the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, as well as U.S. Supreme Court cases, such as Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas and Zelman, Superintendent of Public Instruction of Ohio, et al. v. Simmons-Harris et al. are some examples included in the handbook of documents that have shaped education in the United States. This handbook is an important resource for all who require information about this critically important American institution. The reader will find cross-disciplinary coverage of such issues as the development and change in the organization and structure of the high school as an institution. In addition, the experiences of students in high school and the long-term effects of high school will be covered. It is hoped that The Praeger Handbook of American High Schools will be an essential reference for scholars and students in a variety of fields of study, including education, anthropology, history, political science, psychology, and sociology, and could serve as a supplementary text in courses on the social foundations of education and the anthropology and sociology of education. High school students, teachers, and administrators will also find it an attractive reference for class papers and projects, and for addressing practical issues and concerns. It will also be an important resource for policy makers, advocates, and the general public interested in a variety of educational and social issues. This volume contains the following: (1) Preface; (2) Introduction; (3) List of Documents; and (4) U.S. Supreme Court Cases.   [More]  Descriptors: High Schools, Court Litigation, School Segregation, Compulsory Education

Brock-Utne, Birgit, Ed.; Skattum, Ingse, Ed. (2009). Languages and Education in Africa a Comparative and Transdisciplinary Analysis, Symposium Books. The theme of this book cuts across disciplines. Contributors to this volume are specialized in education and especially classroom research as well as in linguistics, most being transdisciplinary themselves. Around 65 sub-Saharan languages figure in this volume as research objects: as means of instruction, in connection with teacher training, language policy, lexical development, harmonization efforts, information technology, oral literature and deaf communities. The co-existence of these African languages with English, French and Arabic is examined as well. This wide range of languages and subjects builds on recent field work, giving new empirical evidence from 17 countries: Botswana, Ethiopia, Ghana, Kenya, Madagascar, Malawi, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Swaziland, Tanzania, Uganda, Zambia and Zimbabwe, as well as to transnational matters like the harmonization of African transborder languages. As the Editors–a Norwegian social scientist and a Norwegian linguist, both working in Africa—have wanted to give room for African voices, the majority of contributions to this volume come from Africa. Following a Foreword (Ayo Bamgbose), Series Editor's Preface (Michael Crossley), and Introduction (Ingse Skattum and Birgit Brock-Utne), the book is divided into four parts. Part 1, General Considerations on Language and Education, includes: Parents' and Policy Makers' Insistence on Foreign Languages as Media of Education in Africa: Restricting Access to Quality Education–For Whose Benefit? (Martha A.S. Qorro); Mother-Tongue Education in Africa for Emancipation and Development: Towards the intellectualisation of African Languages (Kwesi Kwaa Prah); Promoting Multilingual and Multicultural Education in Francophone Africa: Challenges and Perspectives (Hassana Alidou); and Assumptions and Aspirations Regarding African Languages in South African Higher Education: A Sociolinguistic Appraisal (Rajend Mesthrie.) Part 2, Language as a Means of Instruction and as a Subject in Formal Education, includes: L'Utilisation des Langues Nationales dans le Systeme Educatif Malien: Historique, Defies et Perspectives (Mamadou Lamine Traore); The Role of National Languages in Mali's Modernising Islamic Schools (Madrasa) (Tal Tamari); National Language Teaching as a Tool for Malagasy Learners' Integration into Globalisation (Irene Rabenoro); Implications of the Use of Mother Tongues versus English as Languages of Instruction for Academic Achievement in Ethiopia (Mekonnen Alemu Gebre Yohannes); Weaning Africa from Europe: Toward a Mother-Tongue Education Policy in Southern Africa (Silvester Ron Simango); The Training of Teachers of African Languages in Southern Africa with Special Reference to Botswana and Zambia (Lazarus M. Miti & Kemmonye C. Monaka); and Spare No Means: Battling with the English/Kiswahili Dlemma in Tanzanian Secondary School Classrooms (Halima Mohammed Mwinsheikhe.) Part 3, Language Standardisation and Harmonisation, includes: Language, Dialect and Region: The Handling of Language Herbert Chimhundu Variation in Shona Dictionaries (Herbert Chimhundu); Harmonisation of the Shona Varieties: Doke Revisited (Nhira Edgar Mberi); Adjectives in Shona (Nomalanga Mpofu); and From Standardisation to Harmonisation: A Survey of the Sociolinguistic and Political Conditions for the Creation of Nguni in Southern Africa (Samukele Hadebe.) Part 4, Beyond Formal Education, includes: La Communication Mediatisee par les Technologies de les Technologies de l'Information et de la Communication: La Porte d'Acces au Domaine de l'Escrit pour les Langues Africaines? (Kristin Vold Lexander); Comment les Langues se Melangent-elles a l'Ecrit? Pratiques Actuelles de deux Agriculteurs Passes par une Ecole Bilingue (Franco-Bambara) au Mali (Aissatou Mbodj-Pouye & Cecile Van Den Avenne); Towards an Enriched Beginning Reading Programme in Yoruba (Foluso O. Okebukola); and What is South African Sign Language? What is the South African Deaf Community? (Philemon Akach, Eline Demey, Emily Matabane, Mieke Van Herreweghe and Myriam Vermeerbergen.) Contributor information is included.   [More]  Descriptors: African Languages, Language Planning, Multicultural Education, Beginning Reading

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